Language & meaning

1. The problem of meaning

• Read the following passage, attributed to Judy Lanier, which is called 'The Montillation of Traxoline', and the answer the questions below.

The montillation of traxoline

It is very important that you learn about Traxoline. Traxoline is a new form of Zionter. It is montilled in Ceristanna. The Ceristanniansgristerate large amounts of fevon and then bracter it into quaseltraxoline. Traxoline may well be one of our most lukizedsnezlaus in the future because of our zionterlescelidge.

1. What is traxoline?
2. Where is traxoline montilled?
3. How is traxoline quaselled?
4. Why is it important to know about traxoline?

• You can answer the questions although you have no idea what the words mean!!
• If you don’t know the meaning of key words in a sentence you will not understand it.
• Traxoline is a new form of Zionter – do we know this is true?
• Important because you must know what a sentence means before you can decide whether or not it is true.

2. Theories of meaning

a. Definition Theory

• Define as precisely as you can the following 3 words - i. Triangle ii. Table iii. Love
• Which was the easiest to define? Which was the most difficult? Why?
• What does this discussion reveal about what types of words can be defined precisely
• Definitions depend on using other words! In order to stop being trapped in an endless circle of words, language must surely connect with the world.

b. Denotation theory

• A meaningful word “stands” for something, whereas a meaningless word does not
• France stands for...

• Can you think of words that would be difficult to define by finding something they 'stand for'?
• Abstract words: 'multiplication', 'freedom' and 'wisdom' - you might be able to point to examples of these, but not to them.

c. Image theory

• The meaning of a word is the mental image it stands for. You know the meaning of the word when you have the relevant concept in your mind.
• What is the difference between you speaking English and a parrot 'speaking English'?
• In pairs, ask each other to describe what image they have when considering the list of words below. How different are they?

•Freedom
•Democracy
•Red
•England
•New York
•History
•Art
•Psychology

• What criticisms of the image theory can be made?
• We can never be sure that a person understands the meaning of a word the same as we do as they may have a different “image” in their mind
• An English football team.. Has to be... ?

3. Meaning as know-how

• You know the meaning of a word when you know how to use it correctly e.g. the word 'red'

4. Problematic meaning

• We often use language in all kinds of non-literal ways. We rarely say what we mean.

'we like to talk in parables and in hints and in indirections - whether from diffidence or some other instinct.' Robert Frost

a.Vagueness

• Many words depend on context e.g. fast
• Without thinking too much, write down a figure for the following;

a. John lives near school. How close does he live?
b. Janet is a heavy smoker. How many cigarettes a day does she smoke?
c. Mr Smith is middle- aged. How old is he?
d. Nafisha’s mother is rich. How much money does she have in the bank?

• Where does non-baldness end and baldness begin?

b. Ambiguity

• Many words and phrases are ambiguous e.g. 'the duchess cannot bear children'
• Some Jokes rely on ambiguity

“The valuable dog was still missing, believed stolen, however the police announced they have a lead.”
"Your very last breath will be a fatal blow."
"Gravity is studied a lot because it's a very attractive field."

• Each of the following sentences is ambiguous. Give two different meanings for each of them:

Flying planes can be dangerous
They saw Mrs Jones and a dog sitting under a table.
Refuse to be put in the basket.
Mia wanted to hear the pop star sing very badly.
Visiting relatives can be boring.
Johnny ate the bacon on the sofa.
I didn’t sleep with my wife before we were married. Did you?

• In small groups write down some of your own ambiguous statements

• How do politicians use ambiguity?
• Context is important

c. Secondary meanin

• Connotations - web of associations surrounding a word. Vary from person to person e.g. 'love', 'death', 'school' and 'priest'
• Why do we sometimes use euphemisms such as 'passed away' instead of 'died'?
• When Bill Clinton entered the White House in 1993, his wife Hilary Clinton wanted to be known as the 'Presidential Partner'. What is the difference in connotation between 'First Lady' and 'Presidential Partner'?
• If Hilary ever became president of the USA, what do you think would be an appropriate title for her husband?
• Explain the different connotations of each of the following sets of words:

a. slender, skinny, thin
b. stubborn, steadfast, firm
c. praise, flatter, commend
d. energetic, spirited, frenzied
e. stench, smell, fragrance

• Think of as many different words or expressions for each of the following. What is the difference in their connotations?

a. Vomit
b. Drunk
c. Stupid

d. Metaphor

• What do the following actually mean?

a. 'Roxanne has her head in the clouds.'
b. 'Basil is a pillar of the community.'
c. Minnie has put her roots down in Houston.'

• Context is important: Which of the following would you interpret literally? Metaphorically?

a. 'My brother is a butcher.'
b. 'My dentist is a butcher'

• For some phrases we have forgotten their metaphorical origin e.g. 'nightfall', 'sharp tongue', 'in love'

e. Irony -

• The saying of one thing in order to mean the opposite - means we can't take language at face value
• 'Nice weather, heh?', 'Any more bright ideas, Einstein?'

5. Meaning and interpretation